[/
          Copyright Oliver Kowalke 2016.
 Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0.
    (See accompanying file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at
          http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt
]

[#ff]
[section:ff Context switching with fibers]

[note __fiber__ is the reference implementation of C++ proposal
[@http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2018/p0876r0.pdf P0876R0:
fibers without scheduler].]

A __fiber__ represents the state of the control flow of a program at a given
point in time. Fibers can be suspended and resumed later in order to change the
control flow of a program.

Modern micro-processors are registers machines; the content of processor
registers represent a fiber of the executed program at a given point in time.
Operating systems simulate parallel execution of programs on a single processor
by switching between programs (context switch) by preserving and restoring the
fiber, e.g. the content of all registers.


[heading __fib__]

__fib__ captures the current fiber (the rest of the computation; code after
__fib__) and triggers a context switch. The context switch is achieved by
preserving certain registers (including instruction and stack pointer), defined
by the calling convention of the ABI, of the current fiber and restoring those
registers of the resumed fiber. The control flow of the resumed fiber continues.
The current fiber is suspended and passed as argument to the resumed fiber.

__fib__ expects a __context_fn__ with signature `'fiber(fiber && f)'`. The
parameter `f` represents the current fiber from which this fiber was resumed
(e.g. that has called __fib__).

On return the __context_fn__ of the current fiber has to specify an __fib__ to
which the execution control is transferred after termination of the current
fiber.

If an instance with valid state goes out of scope and the __context_fn__ has not
yet returned, the stack is traversed in order to access the control structure
(address stored at the first stack frame) and fiber's stack is deallocated via
the __stack_allocator__.

[note [link segmented ['Segmented stacks]] are supported by __fib__ using [link
implementation ['ucontext_t]].]


__fib__ represents a __fiber__; it contains the content of preserved registers
and manages the associated stack (allocation/deallocation). __fib__ is a
one-shot fiber - it can be used only once, after calling __resume__ or
__resume_with__ it is invalidated.

__fib__ is  only move-constructible and move-assignable.

As a first-class object __fib__ can be applied to and returned from a function,
assigned to a variable or stored in a container.

A fiber is continued by calling `resume()`/`resume_with()`.


[heading Usage]

        namespace ctx=boost::context;
        int a;
        ctx::fiber source{[&a](ctx::fiber&& sink){
            a=0;
            int b=1;
            for(;;){
                sink=std::move(sink).resume();
                int next=a+b;
                a=b;
                b=next;
            }
            return std::move(sink);
        }};
        for (int j=0;j<10;++j) {
            source=std::move(source).resume();
            std::cout << a << " ";
        }

        output:
            0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

This simple example demonstrates the basic usage of __fib__ as a ['generator].
The fiber `sink` represents the ['main]-fiber (function `main()`).
`sink` is captured (current-fiber) by invoking __fib__ and passed as parameter
to the lambda.

Because the state is invalidated (one-shot fiber) by each call of __resume__,
the new state of the __fib__, returned by __resume__, needs to be assigned to
`sink` after each call. In order to express the invalidation of the resumed fiber,
the member functions `resume()` and `resume_with()` are rvalue-ref qualified.
Both functions bind only to rvalues. Thus an lvalue fiber must be casted to an
rvalue via `std::move()`.

The lambda that calculates the Fibonacci numbers is executed inside the fiber
represented by `source`. Calculated Fibonacci numbers are transferred between
the two fibers via variable `a` (lambda capture reference).

The locale variables `b` and ` next` remain their values during each context
switch. This is possible due `source` has its own stack and the stack is
exchanged by each context switch.


[heading Parameter passing]

Data can be transferred between two fibers via global pointers, calling wrappers
(like `std::bind`) or lambda captures.

    namespace ctx=boost::context;
    int i=1;
    ctx::fiber f1{[&i](ctx::fiber&& f2){
        std::printf("inside f1,i==%d\n",i);
        i+=1;
        return std::move(f2).resume();
    }};
    f1=std::move(f1).resume();
    std::printf("i==%d\n",i);

    output:
        inside c1,i==1
        i==2

`f1.resume()` enters the lambda in fiber represented by `f1` with lambda capture
reference `i=1`. The expression `f2.resume()` resumes the fiber `f2`. On return
of `f1.resume()`, the variable `i` has the value of `i+1`.


[heading Exception handling]

If the function executed inside a __context_fn__ emits an exception, the
application is terminated by calling `std::terminate()`. `std::exception_ptr`
can be used to transfer exceptions between different fibers.

[important Do not jump from inside a catch block.]


[#ff_ontop]
[heading Executing function on top of a fiber]

Sometimes it is useful to execute a new function on top of a resumed fiber. For
this purpose __resume_with__ has to be used.
The function passed as argument must accept a rvalue reference to __fib__ and
return __fib__.

    namespace ctx=boost::context;
    int data=0;
    ctx::fiber f1{[&data](ctx::fiber&& f2) {
        std::cout << "f1: entered first time: " << data << std::endl;
        data+=1;
        f2=std::move(f2).resume();
        std::cout << "f1: entered second time: " << data << std::endl;
        data+=1;
        f2=std::move(f2).resume();
        std::cout << "f1: entered third time: " << data << std::endl;
        return std::move(f2);
    }};
    f1=std::move(f1).resume();
    std::cout << "f1: returned first time: " << data << std::endl;
    data+=1;
    f1=std::move(f1).resume();
    std::cout << "f1: returned second time: " << data << std::endl;
    data+=1;
    f1=std::move(f1).resume_with([&data](ctx::fiber&& f2){
        std::cout << "f2: entered: " << data << std::endl;
        data=-1;
        return std::move(f2);
    });
    std::cout << "f1: returned third time" << std::endl;

    output:
        f1: entered first time: 0
        f1: returned first time: 1
        f1: entered second time: 2
        f1: returned second time: 3
        f2: entered: 4
        f1: entered third time: -1
        f1: returned third time


The expression `f1.resume_with(...)` executes a lambda on top of fiber `f1`,
e.g. an additional stack frame is allocated on top of the stack.
This lambda assigns `-1` to `data` and returns to the second invocation of
`f1.resume()`.

Another option is to execute a function on top of the fiber that throws
an exception.

    namespace ctx=boost::context;
    struct my_exception : public std::runtime_error {
        ctx::fiber    f;
        my_exception(ctx::fiber&& f_,std::string const& what) :
            std::runtime_error{ what },
            f{ std::move(f_) } {
        }
    };

    ctx::fiber f{[](ctx::fiber && f) ->ctx::fiber {
        std::cout << "entered" << std::endl;
        try {
            f=std::move(f).resume();
        } catch (my_exception & ex) {
            std::cerr << "my_exception: " << ex.what() << std::endl;
            return std::move(ex.f);
        }
        return {};
    });
    f=std::move(f).resume();
    f=std::move(f).resume_with([](ctx::fiber && f) ->ctx::fiber {
        throw my_exception(std::move(f),"abc");
        return {};
    });

    output:
        entered
        my_exception: abc

In this exception `my_exception` is throw from a function invoked on-top of
fiber `f` and catched inside the `for`-loop.

[heading Stack unwinding]
On construction of __fib__ a stack is allocated.
If the __context_fn__ returns the stack will be destructed.
If the __context_fn__ has not yet returned and the destructor of an valid
__fib__ instance (e.g. ['fiber::operator bool()] returns
`true`) is called, the stack will be destructed too.

[important Code executed by __context_fn__ must not prevent the propagation ofs
the __forced_unwind__ exception.  Absorbing that exception will cause stack
unwinding to fail.  Thus, any code that catches all exceptions must re-throw any
pending __forced_unwind__ exception.]


[#ff_prealloc]
[heading Allocating control structures on top of stack]
Allocating control structures on top of the stack requires to allocated the
__stack_context__ and create the control structure with placement new before
__fib__ is created.
[note The user is responsible for destructing the control structure at the top
of the stack.]

    namespace ctx=boost::context;
    // stack-allocator used for (de-)allocating stack
    fixedsize_stack salloc(4048);
    // allocate stack space
    stack_context sctx(salloc.allocate());
    // reserve space for control structure on top of the stack
    void * sp=static_cast<char*>(sctx.sp)-sizeof(my_control_structure);
    std::size_t size=sctx.size-sizeof(my_control_structure);
    // placement new creates control structure on reserved space
    my_control_structure * cs=new(sp)my_control_structure(sp,size,sctx,salloc);
    ...
    // destructing the control structure
    cs->~my_control_structure();
    ...
    struct my_control_structure  {
        // captured fiber
        ctx::fiber   f;

        template< typename StackAllocator >
        my_control_structure(void * sp,std::size_t size,stack_context sctx,StackAllocator salloc) :
            // create captured fiber
            f{std::allocator_arg,preallocated(sp,size,sctx),salloc,entry_func} {
        }
        ...
    };


[heading Inverting the control flow]

    namespace ctx=boost::context;
    /*
     * grammar:
     *   P ---> E '\0'
     *   E ---> T {('+'|'-') T}
     *   T ---> S {('*'|'/') S}
     *   S ---> digit | '(' E ')'
     */
    class Parser{
       char next;
       std::istream& is;
       std::function<void(char)> cb;

       char pull(){
            return std::char_traits<char>::to_char_type(is.get());
       }

       void scan(){
           do{
               next=pull();
           }
           while(isspace(next));
       }

    public:
       Parser(std::istream& is_,std::function<void(char)> cb_) :
          next(), is(is_), cb(cb_)
        {}

       void run() {
          scan();
          E();
       }

    private:
       void E(){
          T();
          while (next=='+'||next=='-'){
             cb(next);
             scan();
             T();
          }
       }

       void T(){
          S();
          while (next=='*'||next=='/'){
             cb(next);
             scan();
             S();
          }
       }

       void S(){
          if (isdigit(next)){
             cb(next);
             scan();
          }
          else if(next=='('){
             cb(next);
             scan();
             E();
             if (next==')'){
                 cb(next);
                 scan();
             }else{
                 throw std::runtime_error("parsing failed");
             }
          }
          else{
             throw std::runtime_error("parsing failed");
          }
       }
    };

    std::istringstream is("1+1");
    // user-code pulls parsed data from parser
    // invert control flow
    char c;
    bool done=false;
    // execute parser in new fiber
    ctx::fiber source{[&is,&c,&done](ctx::fiber&& sink){
        // create parser with callback function
        Parser p(is,
                 [&sink,&c](char c_){
                    // resume main fiber
                    c=c_;
                    sink=std::move(sink).resume();
                 });
            // start recursive parsing
            p.run();
            // signal termination
            done=true;
            // resume main fiber
            return std::move(sink);
    }};
    source=std::move(source).resume();
    while(!done){
        printf("Parsed: %c\n",c);
        source=std::move(source).resume();
    }

    output:
        Parsed: 1
        Parsed: +
        Parsed: 1

In this example a recursive descent parser uses a callback to emit a newly
passed symbol. Using __fib__ the control flow can be inverted, e.g. the
user-code pulls parsed symbols from the parser - instead to get pushed from the
parser (via callback).

The data (character) is transferred between the two fibers.


[#implementation]
[section Implementations: fcontext_t, ucontext_t and WinFiber]

[heading fcontext_t]
The implementation uses __fcontext__ per default. fcontext_t is based on
assembler and not available for all platforms. It provides a much better
performance than __ucontext__
(the context switch takes two magnitudes of order less CPU cycles; see section
[link performance ['performance]]) and __winfib__.

[note Because the TIB (thread information block on Windows) is not fully
described in the MSDN, it might be possible that not all required TIB-parts are
swapped. Using WinFiber implementation migh be an alternative.]


[heading ucontext_t]
As an alternative, [@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setcontext __ucontext__]
can be used by compiling with `BOOST_USE_UCONTEXT` and b2 property
`context-impl=ucontext`.
__ucontext__ might be available on a broader range of POSIX-platforms but has
some [link ucontext ['disadvantages]] (for instance deprecated since
POSIX.1-2003, not C99 conform).

[note __fib__ supports [link segmented ['Segmented stacks]] only with
__ucontext__ as its implementation.]


[heading WinFiber]
With `BOOST_USE_WINFIB` and b2 property `context-impl=winfib` Win32-Fibers are
used as implementation for __fib__.

[note The first call of __fib__ converts the thread into a Windows fiber by
invoking `ConvertThreadToFiber()`. If desired, `ConvertFiberToThread()` has
to be called by the user explicitly in order to release resources allocated
by `ConvertThreadToFiber()` (e.g. after using boost.context). ]

[endsect]


[section Class `fiber`]

    #include <boost/context/fiber.hpp>

    class fiber {
    public:
        fiber() noexcept;

        template<typename Fn>
        fiber(Fn && fn);

        template<typename StackAlloc, typename Fn>
        fiber(std::allocator_arg_t, StackAlloc && salloc, Fn && fn);

        ~fiber();

        fiber(fiber && other) noexcept;

        fiber & operator=(fiber && other) noexcept;

        fiber(fiber const& other) noexcept = delete;
        fiber & operator=(fiber const& other) noexcept = delete;

        fiber resume() &&;

        template<typename Fn>
        fiber resume_with(Fn && fn) &&;

        explicit operator bool() const noexcept;

        bool operator!() const noexcept;

        bool operator==(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

        bool operator!=(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

        bool operator<(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

        bool operator>(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

        bool operator<=(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

        bool operator>=(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

        template<typename charT,class traitsT>
        friend std::basic_ostream<charT,traitsT> &
        operator<<(std::basic_ostream<charT,traitsT> & os,fiber const& other) {

        void swap(fiber & other) noexcept;
    };

[constructor_heading ff..constructor1]

    fiber() noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Effects:] [Creates a invalid fiber.]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[constructor_heading ff..constructor2]

    template<typename Fn>
    fiber(Fn && fn);

    template<typename StackAlloc, typename Fn>
    fiber(std::allocator_arg_t, StackAlloc && salloc, Fn && fn);

[variablelist
[[Effects:] [Creates a new fiber and prepares the context to execute `fn`.
`fixedsize_stack` is used as default stack allocator
(stack size == fixedsize_stack::traits::default_size()). The constructor with
argument type `preallocated`, is used to create a user defined data
[link ff_prealloc (for instance additional control structures)] on top of the
stack.]]
]

[destructor_heading ff..destructor destructor]

    ~fiber();

[variablelist
[[Effects:] [Destructs the associated stack if `*this` is a valid fiber,
e.g. ['fiber::operator bool()] returns `true`.]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[move_constructor_heading ff..move constructor]

    fiber(fiber && other) noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Effects:] [Moves underlying capture fiber to `*this`.]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[move_assignment_heading ff..move assignment]

    fiber & operator=(fiber && other) noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Effects:] [Moves the state of `other` to `*this` using move semantics.]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_call..operator()]

        fiber resume() &&;

        template<typename Fn>
        fiber resume_with(Fn && fn) &&;

[variablelist
[[Effects:] [Captures current fiber and resumes `*this`.
The function `resume_with`, is used to execute function `fn` in the execution context of
`*this` (e.g. the stack frame of `fn` is allocated on stack of `*this`).]]
[[Returns:] [The fiber representing the fiber that has been
suspended.]]
[[Note:] [Because `*this` gets invalidated, `resume()` and `resume_with()` are rvalue-ref
qualified and bind only to rvalues.]]
[[Note:] [Function `fn` needs to return `fiber`.]]
[[Note:] [The returned fiber indicates if the suspended fiber has
terminated (return from context-function) via `bool operator()`.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_bool..operator bool]

    explicit operator bool() const noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Returns:] [`true` if `*this` points to a captured fiber.]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_not..operator!]

    bool operator!() const noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Returns:] [`true` if `*this` does not point to a captured fiber.]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_equal..operator==]

        bool operator==(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Returns:] [`true` if `*this` and `other` represent the same fiber,
`false` otherwise.]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_notequal..operator!=]

        bool operator!=(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Returns:] [[`! (other == * this)]]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_less..operator<]

        bool operator<(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Returns:] [`true` if `*this != other` is true and the
implementation-defined total order of `fiber` values places `*this`
before `other`, false otherwise.]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_greater..operator>]

        bool operator>(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Returns:] [`other < * this`]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_lesseq..operator<=]

        bool operator<=(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Returns:] [`! (other < * this)`]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[operator_heading ff..operator_greatereq..operator>=]

        bool operator>=(fiber const& other) const noexcept;

[variablelist
[[Returns:] [`! (* this < other)`]]
[[Throws:] [Nothing.]]
]

[hding ff_..Non-member function [`operator<<()]]

        template<typename charT,class traitsT>
        std::basic_ostream<charT,traitsT> &
        operator<<(std::basic_ostream<charT,traitsT> & os,fiber const& other);

[variablelist
[[Effects:] [Writes the representation of `other` to stream `os`.]]
[[Returns:] [`os`]]
]

[endsect]


[endsect]